As I’m sure many of us have heard Tiger Woods (Real name: Eldrick Tont Woods) has run into some problems in recent years. During the U.S. Open in June 2008, Woods seemed to be in pain, occasionally wincing after tee shots and favoring the left foot to keep weight off of it. Despite the pain, Woods managed to force the game into a sudden death playoff with Rocco Mediate which Woods won when Mediate missed his putt for par.

Now I’ll grant you that the phrase ‘sudden death’ can make anything more interesting, even golf, but what everyone considers the most impressive feat of that day is the fact that Tiger Woods managed to win while suffering a torn anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and a double-stress fracture of his left tibia. Or as fellow PGA golfer Kenny Perry so succinctly put it, “He beat everyone on one leg.”

For those of you familiar with sports, you may not be surprised to hear of an ACL injury in basketball, football, rugby or American football since most injuries of that kind are due to quick acceleration, deceleration or changing direction (especially in contact sports), but a torn ACL in golf? Unpossible. And in this case, you’d be right. Although chronic problems may have contributed to the injury, the actual ACL injury happened while running near his Florida home sometime after the British Open in 2007, according to Woods.

This injury left Woods conspicuously absent from the world of golf for the latter part of 2008 (it also left spectators conspicuously absent from golf), and although he seemed to be getting back into the swing of things since he started playing tournaments again in February 2009 before taking a break at the end of this year. But is this injury going to intensify his chronic knee problems and continue to handicap him, or are there ways to manage the condition? Furthermore, where the heck is an ACL and what does it do?

Glad you asked, because the ACL plays an important role in stabilizing your knee so the lower leg doesn’t wobble around under you like a pirate’s poorly fitted peg leg. In order to more fully understand the impact of Tiger’s injury on his golfing performance, we’ll take a look at some basic knee anatomy.

The knee is often considered the most complex joint in the body because it allows for flexion and extension (right leg in, right leg out) as well as slight rotation (shake it all about), and it has to do all this while supporting the full weight of the human body. The complexity of the joint is not manifested in the bones as the knee is comprised of only 3 bones; the femur (thigh bone), the tibia (big, weight bearing shin bone in the lower leg) and the patella (kneecap). The fibula (little bone in the lower leg that runs down the calf) connects to the tibia below the joint and is thus not included in the actual joint functioning.

The way these bones are shaped and fit together is integral to the joint’s function. As you’ll see from the diagrams, the bottom end of the femur and the top end of the tibia where they form the knee joint, are formed into two rounded knuckles which are referred to as the Medial and Lateral condyles. This doesn’t make a whole lot of sense until you do what the medical profession did and think of an imaginary vertical plane bisecting your body equally into left and right halves, otherwise known as the median plane or midsagittal plane. In reference to this imaginary plane, the condyle on the outside of either knee is referred to as the Lateral condyle because it is further away from the median plane and the condyle on the inside of the knee is called the Medial condyle for obvious reasons.

These condyles are incredibly important because they function as a point of attachment for the many tendons and ligaments necessary for the function of the knee, while the space in between the condyles of the femur creates a groove for the patella (kneecap) to slide through. The condyles of the femur and tibia are what support the weight of the entire human body, which in some cases, can be considerable.

In order to prevent these bones grinding together during joint movement, there are pads of fibrous cartilage-like tissue between each condyle of the femur and tibia called menisci (plural), if you couldn’t guess already, they’re referred to as the Lateral meniscus and the Medial meniscus. The menisci of the knee are attached to each other as well as to surrounding parts of the knee by fibers of varying strength. Despite being anchored firmly in the knee, the menisci are sufficiently free moving to allow them to slide over the top of the tibia when the knee is rotated, while also being able to move over the condyles of the femur during extension or flexion of the knee.

Other forms of protection against wear and tear in the knees come in the shape of bursae, which are saclike structures that are strategically placed to reduce friction between soft tissues as well as around prominent bone structures in joints. There are at least 13 bursa in and around the knee, I told you it was a complicated joint. While usually not a problem, any of these bursae may become irritated, and possibly fill with fluid, becoming a cystic mass putting pressure on the joint instead of reducing friction.

Actually linking the bones together are the ligaments of the knee. The ones least relevant to us today are the patellar ligament joining the patella to the tibia, and the quadriceps tendon which connects the quadriceps muscle to the patella. Today we’ll focus on the four major ligaments of the knee; the cruciate ligaments and the collateral ligaments which are there for the purpose of stabilizing the knee.

The medial collateral ligament (MCL) runs from the medial epicondyle of the femur (fancy terminology for the outside of the femur’s medial condyle) to the medial condyle of the tibia, it prevents the knee from bending inwards towards the median plane by forces applied to the lateral side of the knee, which are called valgus forces. The lateral collateral ligament (LCL) runs from the lateral epicondyle of the femur to the top of the fibula and protects against varus forces which push the knee away from the median plane. If you’re an avid sports watcher, you may have seen a football, rugby or American football video where someone gets tackled hard and comes out with a knee bending to the side. That would be strong evidence for a collateral ligament injury.

Now while the collateral ligaments protect the knee from bending the wrong direction, i.e. sideways, the cruciate ligaments are there to protect your tibia from sliding out from under your knee either forwards or backwards. The posterior cruciate ligament, or PCL, (posterior refers to it being located towards the back) is attached between the medial condyle of the femur to the posterior intercondylar area of the tibia (in between the condyles), it prevents the lower leg from moving too far backwards relative to the femur and can usually only be damaged by direct trauma. The anterior cruciate ligament, or ACL (posterior/back, anterior/front) runs between the lateral condyle of the femur and the anterior intercondylar area. This ligament prevents the tibia from moving too far forward relative to the femur and is unfortunately easy to injure, usually while the knee is being twisted or bent.

Now we’ve waded through that terminally exciting parcel of medical academia, we can move onto more Tiger-centric knee information. Woods has had a string of surgeries on his left knee throughout the years, starting in 1994 with a surgery to remove a benign tumor. During this surgery doctors discovered substantial scar tissue related to childhood injuries from skateboarding, crashing dirt bikes, etc. Although it makes me wonder, if Woods had practiced skateboarding as much as golf when he was a kid, maybe he could’ve given Tony Hawk a run for his money? At least the games would’ve been better.

In 2002, Tiger went in for arthroscopic knee surgery, which is a minimally invasive surgery procedure where the arthroscope and other surgical tools are inserted through holes made in the skin in order to reduce the amount of anesthetics, cutting and recovery time of the surgery. The 2002 arthroscopic knee surgery was done to drain fluid around the ACL and remove a benign cyst. Apparently Woods enjoys surprising his doctors because this time during surgery, it was discovered Woods’ ACL was overly stretched.

Now, golfing can be fairly inimical to your knees, depending on your swing. For right handed players, on the back swing your left foot is planted as you rotate your hips to the right, this means that your tibia rotates externally relative to the femur and the rest of your body. On the swing and follow through golfers transfer the weight to the outside of their left foot, rotating the tibia inwards while the femur rotates externally bringing the hips and trunk around in rotation to the left. This can put a lot of stress on the knee joint if you don’t carry the kinetic force generated by your swing into the trunk and arms, leading to rotational overload of the knee.

Before his surgery in 2002, while many people stood in awe of Tiger’s swing, although he did have a nasty habit of forcing his knee into hyperextension for more distance. This puts an incredible amount of force on your knee, and when the knee is in hypertension it puts a much greater force on your ACL relative to the PCL, which could have contributed to the worrying stretching that doctors found in the ligament during the arthroscopic surgery in 2002.

For those who either really like golf or just enjoy stalking Tiger Woods, you’ll probably know that in 2003-4 after having recovered from his surgery, Woods decided to change his swing. After a period of time, he drifted away from his previous swing coach, Butch Harmon and ended up working with Hank Haney as his swing coach from early 2004.

Now, I understand nothing about keeping the golf club in the same ‘plane’ on the upswing and down, but both Haney and Woods consider this important as it will allow the body a tighter swing. What they’re really talking about is making sure when Tiger swings the club, he’s taking full advantage of the kinetic chain effect where energy is more efficiently transferred from the feet, through the knees and hips, up into the rotating shoulders, down the arms and through the club into the ball. The less energy lost in transfer through the chain means less stress put on the joints, so the smoother the swing, the less wear and tear on Tiger’s knee.

While Tiger’s game started to improve in 2008, meaning the new swing was working for him, something had gone wrong as he was once again limping on the green during the U.S. Open. A few days after the tournament, Tiger announced he would be undergoing surgery once more. This time it would be for a torn anterior cruciate ligament and a double stress fracture in his left tibia.

When Tiger found that his ACL had been stretched after his previous surgery in 2002, he may have started training his legs hard to compensate, as having strong quadriceps and hamstrings lends extra support to the knee. However, repeated overworking after the surgery may have contributed to or even caused the stress fractures in his shin. As for the ACL injury he picked up while running, it is entirely possible that with his history of knee problems and an already stretched ligament, he may have just put his foot down wrong, forcing his knee into hyperextension which caused the tear in his ACL.

Now in 2009, Tiger seems to have rehabbed well after the 2008 surgery on his knee as he has been doing fairly well this year, winning a number of tournaments. However, assuming Woods intends to keep playing the game into the SPGA, or at least keep walking without pain for the rest of his life, he’ll need to look after his knee. In order to do this, he’ll need to condition his legs so that the leg muscles help support the knee, he’ll also have to avoid underestimating the power of a proper warm up and stretching regimen. Then again, he plays sports for large sums of money, so we’re probably not springing any surprises on him.

While some poor souls in the U.S. may be wondering whether acne or bunions could lead to them being denied insurance, most of the rest of the developed world is concerned with reality and other things of actual significance. Matters of importance, such as: is today the day my iPod explodes and makes me a Eunuch; what is Kanye West’s major malfunction, and when is my lunch getting here?

But what many don’t realize is that some of the same kinds of technologies that imperil your reproductive organs with fiery touch screen shrapnel, and turn Kanye’s boneheaded outbursts into the butt of every joke on the internet are being applied to medicine with less dangerous and infinitely more useful and less cringe worthy results.

Watching What You Say

While many of you may have watched a video of Kanye making an ass of himself, researchers from the University of East Anglia have found that computers and videos can do so much more than just making people look profoundly stupid.

A team from the University’s School of Computing Science has come up with a computerized lip-reading system that far outshines human lip readers. The system is able to recognize what words are being said based on features that show the shape of the face and does not require a full video like humans do. The system works so well that when tested against human lip-readers, the computerized system was capable of recognizing 80 percent of the words compared to the 32 percent recognition rate achieved by humans at the same task.

This has greater implications than just being a handy way for our robot overlords to know what hairless apes are talking about. Indeed, it’s already causing some to rethink how we teach the hearing-impaired to read lips. Traditionally, we show people pictures and try to teach people to recognize key shapes the lips make during speech. However, the study showed that it may be more helpful to teach people to recognize signs that the entire face gives off as it makes noise. The researchers hope that this could give rise to a raft of new video-based, lip-reading education tools so we can stop shouting at granny around the dinner table.

Accessible Gene Therapy

I’d open up with a joke about someone taking their Levis to group therapy, but gene/jean jokes sound more tired than Kanye after a good cry with Leno (see what I mean about being the butt of every internet joke?). If you read news for actual information about the world, a laughable practice that rightly seems to be dying out, you may have read that some scientists in the US bequeathed the gift of full color vision to some adult male squirrel monkeys, which are naturally unable to distinguish between red and green. Female squirrel monkeys are able to distinguish these colors naturally, males, not so much. Nature is totally sexist, I know. By injecting therapeutic genes into the part of the eyes where the light-sensing cells reside, they were able to coax the cells into being able to differentiate between red and green. What’s great is that this shows proof of concept that you can cure color-blindness in primates; i.e. us. You’ll no longer be able to use the ‘I can’t differentiate red & green’ excuse when you run a red light. Go team Monkey Science!

So what gives? Gene therapy has been a term bandied about since the late 90s and could very well end up being the duct tape of medicine, curing everything from cancer to diabetes, but we’re only curing sight impaired monkeys now? Sad, I know, I was hoping for super mutant powers by this point. However, the reason gene therapy isn’t curing all that ails us is that performing actual gene therapy correctly, and safely for that matter, is incredibly hard. In effect, you’re trying to introduce foreign genes to correct problems in the patients DNA that give rise to diseases such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia or hell, even male pattern baldness. As you could imagine, this has problems not just in terms of how you get the genes into the person in the first place, but whether or not they’ll even be compatible with the patient’s personal biology. To date we’ve tried a lot of methods involving viruses, retroviruses, adenoviruses and a bunch of non-viral methods with really big words. However, with the advent of nanotechnology we may have a way that is safer and more effective.

Not content to just keep their bling on their ring fingers, a team of researchers at Northwestern University have pioneered a novel gene therapy technique involving surface-modified nanodiamonds. The problems faced by current gene delivery mechanisms are biocompatibility and efficiency of delivery. In English, it means they need something that won’t be toxic to human cells once inside the body, but will still get the new DNA to the right place in sufficient quantities. Our intrepid scientists started with a commercially available polymer used in DNA delivery called polyethelene-800 (PEI800) which has good biocompatibility but isn’t very efficient at delivering DNA and tried to improve it. What they found was when they coated nanodiamonds with PEI800 the delivery efficiency was over 70 times greater than PEI800 by itself with the added bonus of not causing massive cell death. While this is a first step with much more research needing to be done before it can be used to treat diseases, it shows that recent advances in technology are opening entirely new avenues of medical treatments for some of the most crippling illnesses on the planet.

Better Prosthesis through Granny Abuse

What do you do with your Grandmother? Keep her in the old folk’s home? Locked in the basement? Either way, I bet you’re not using her to advance science are you? One enterprising 71 year old is helping researchers at Nunnery Orthotic & Prosthetic Technologies (nothing to do with nuns) come up with better prosthetic legs by tripping her as she runs on a treadmill. While making old people fall down is generally frowned upon, if you put them in a harness that stops them hitting the floor and cover them in movement and pressure sensors it seems to be okay. When we trip or stumble our body can react almost instantly to try and recover from it. So, the researchers are trying to gather information about these kinds of physiological reactions through methods very similar to the motion capture technology used in movies and videogames.

The end result is to try and see if the research team can use the data they’ve collected from their test subjects (both able-bodied and those wearing prosthetic legs) to find a way to detect the body’s reaction to stumbling. If they can detect the reaction fast enough, they can program an appropriate response into the prosthetic limb so that it would work in tandem with the rest of the amputee’s body and provide active stumble protection, much akin to anti-lock brakes on legless people. Either way, our adventurous septuagenarian volunteer seems to enjoy overcoming all obstacles in her one-legged path.

Think Small

What do you get when you combine small things and lotion? Contrary to the deviants giggling about what they did to themselves last night, you get some astounding improvements in medicine. With nanotechnology beginning to come of age, it is fundamentally changing what we thought possible in terms of what we can make previously mundane materials do.

One of the ways our growing mastery of engineering and manipulating ridiculously tiny things is opening new worlds for us is in the realm of nanoemulsion. An emulsion is an ingenious method of getting two liquids that have no business mixing together to do just that. Generally, this occurs as an emulsion of oil and water based substances because trying to get these two kinds of liquids to mix any other way is like trying to herd cats. The end result is a usually cream, lotion or other kind of semi-gelatinous liquid, so pretty much any kind of ointment the Doctor gave you to rub on yourself is an emulsion.

What’s that you say? If we can herd cats and mix oil and water into goop, what makes nanoemulsion so special? Well, with regular emulsion we can make butter, with nanoemulsion we can take soybean oil, water, alcohol and detergents and turn them into a cream that is capable of the wholesale slaughter of most bacteria, viruses and fungi. Scientists seem to have created the Genghis Khan of the microbial world that may also provide us with a new vaccine for smallpox and HIV. Suck on that, butter.

By emulsifying four fairly simple ingredients and forcing them down a narrow, possibly partitioned tube (also known as extrusion) until they make droplets that are 400 nanometers big, we’ve made one of the most versatile medical breakthroughs in the world. Scientists at the University of Michigan, where all the cool nanotechnologists are hanging around these days, are testing the benefits of using nanoemulsions in treating second degree burns. Because the small size of the emulsion allows it to penetrate deeper into the skin, it is capable of reducing bacterial growth much better than the anti-bacterial cream currently used to prevent infection in burn victims.

The nanoemulsion’s small size offers it a number of unique properties which make it incredibly useful in medical settings. It can transverse mucous membranes (which are not limited to the snot factory in your nose) easily and it also spurs the body to produce a more comprehensive immunological response which gives it immense appeal as a platform for new vaccines. Nanoemulsion’s physical properties give it a novel way of destroying bacteria, which it does by disrupting their cell membranes, which means bacteria do not have a chance to develop resistances to anti-biotics. The fact that it can do all this while remaining non-toxic to most human cells means that you could very well be seeing a new wave of emulsion-based vaccines you administer through your nose, sans needle, that can protect against everything from gonorrhea to herpes.

Made to Match Organs

We all know that the only line longer than the one at the DMV is the one for getting an organ transplant. But what if you could go in to the doctors, have a sample taken, and then come back later when they’ve grown your replacement organ? Sound good right? As incredibly handy as that sounds, tissue engineering just isn’t that far along yet. Up till now, tissue engineering’s success has been mostly limited skin and cartilage growth. Most applications of the science have been limited to frivolous activities such as growing ears on mice and the Australian ‘performer’ who had an ear grafted to his arm. This, of course, gives credence to the views that science is awesome and performance artists are like carnies (small hands, smell like cabbage), minus a safe place to keep them away from the general populace.

The reason we’re not engineering free standing spleens yet is because when you start trying to grow organs you need a way to get nutrients to the entire structure and remove waste before it builds up, much like your arteries, blood vessels and veins do in your body. Without a system to feed the growing organ, you’re going to end up with a rotting fleshy mess in the Petri dish. Previous attempts to overcome this irrigation issue have centered on photolithography, the process used to make computer chips. However, because you have to individually engrave layer after layer with channels and grooves, the method is expensive and time-consuming, making it ill suited for the purpose of growing organs.

Feeling that tissue engineering had gone too long without a mad scientist moment, two colleagues from Texas A&M took inspiration from Frankenstein, deciding that lightning was the way to go. Thankfully they’re not reanimating corpses on campus, but instead running electricity through plastic. Using a phenomenon known as the Lichtenberg Effect as a conceptual starting point, they team used electron beam irradiation to electrically charge an acrylic (plastic) block, and then they hammered a nail into one side of the block or another. Each strike on the nail causes the electricity to run through the inside of the plastic like tendrils of lightning, leaving behind empty, interconnected trails.

The result is that the block is filled with branching, interconnected tubes that can carry liquid throughout the entire 3-dimensional area, which oddly enough is exactly what you need from an engineered vascular system. While this method is in its infancy, the study’s authors have already shown that the vasculature can be reproduced reliably, quickly and en masse, establishing it as a more cost-effective method than photolithography. With a few more modifications they will be able to create the vascular systems in porous, biodegradable material which would provide a medium in which to insert cell cultures around the vascular system to make blood vessels and kidney cells. With a little more experimentation in kidney molds, we could be seeing individually grown organs before you can sew a corpse together and strike it with lightning.

From the nanotech revolution to the computer mapping tricks that make movie magic possible, novel applications of technologies both new and old can inspire incredible breakthroughs in the medical world. We should value and cherish those whimsical folk who don the white lab coat for the good of us all. For showing us that there is always a reason for tripping the old and disabled, for showing us that our computer overlords vastly outstrip our capabilities, even in recognizing our own speech patterns, and for coming up with new ideas that may save us from our unhealthy ways; we salute you, you glorious nerds.

As a child, you’re pretty carefree about the things you and you’re also pretty feckless as to the effects of pretty much everything. But part of growing up is finding out how much all the fun things you used to do are going to come back and bite you. Hard.

I still remember the day my mom caught me eating wall candy, only to tan my hide as she educated me about the dangers of lead based paint. Who’d a thunk that those tasty flakes of paint on the wall could retard the mental development of… Ooh look, something shiny.

So in the spirit of celebrating our youthful indiscretions and the unforeseen consequences, we’re going to be covering 6 medical findings you wouldn’t have thought true, and even if you did have an inkling, you wouldn’t want to believe it.

1. Frequent sex and masturbation increases your chance of prostate cancer.

What man doesn’t like sex? Even puritans will admit they enjoy it as a guilty pleasure. Which is why a recent study by a group of UK researchers published in BJU (British Journal of Urology) International, caught me by surprise like a cold draught up a kilt. The study took an in depth look at 431 men who were diagnosed with prostate cancer and 409 control subjects and their findings show that men who are extremely sexually active in their 20’s and 30s are more likely to develop prostate cancer. The study also makes it clear that it’s generally more of a problem for people

Even statues do it

engaging in frequent self-loving rather than sexual intercourse with another person.

Hormones play a large role in prostate cancer, with therapy being one treatment used to reduce hormones that seem to stimulate cancer cells. In the words of one illustrious author of the study “A man’s sex drive is also regulated by his hormone levels, so this study examined the theory that having a high sex drive affects the risk of prostate cancer.” Ouch. Not all is lost though, as small levels of sexual activity for men in their 50’s afford them a measure of protection against the disease. Still though, if you’re in the 20-30 age range and don’t have a girlfriend, it may be worth it to put yourself down and go find one. She may give you ulcers, but she could reduce the chance of cancer.

2. The long term repercussions of concussions.

Firstly, try saying that five times really fast. Secondly, don’t get a concussion. Researchers from the Montreal University in balmy Canada carried out a large array of tests on 40 former athletes now aged 50-60, 19 of whom had sustained at least one concussion in their youth. The tests included short term memory tests, following simple verbal and written commands, and motor control. Their findings were that people who suffered one or two concussions

Anatomy of a Concussion

earlier in life performed poorer in the tests than the other test subjects. Overall, they had a more difficult time with the memory tests, slightly delayed reactions to unexpected events and took a little bit longer than their counterparts to complete the motor control tests.

There were, thankfully, no signs of more serious problems such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s Disease, and the former athletes are all leading active, healthy lifestyles. However, it remains to be seen whether the slight effects noted in the study would begin to worsen as the subjects get older. One Andrew Scheuber, from the Alzheimer’s Research Trust, pointed out the glaringly obvious when he said “Sportsmen and women should take extra care to avoid head trauma.” Oh really?

3. Video games are no end of terrible for you.

I’m sure this may come as no surprise to some of you, but a recent study from Brigham Young University, the Mormon university in Utah, shows a negative relationship between people’s video game and internet habits, and their relationship quality, perception of themselves, and risky behaviors like drug usage and sex. You know, fun.

Not what a healthy social life looks like.

The findings indicate that the more you play video games the more your relationship quality deteriorates, and apparently girls with high internet and video game use have lower self esteem. Also noted were the fact that people who play video games daily smoke twice as much marijuana as other players, and three times as much as people who don’t play games.

As tempting a target as it may be for some, the results should not be over generalized. The study contained 813 undergraduate students from BYU, 500 females and 313 males, 73% were European Americans, and most subjects came from a middle class family. Add onto that, the fact that University admittedly is 98.6% Mormon, and you hardly have a balanced cross section of American gamer society and even less representative of gamers internationally. Either way, many nerds will now suffer an unending string of “I told you so” from their girlfriend… If they have one.

4. Alcohol and Tobacco more dangerous than Mary-Jane and LSD?

Britain’s drug regulations are supposed to be based on how much harm it does or risk is poses, but seems to lack clarity as to how they are assed. Enter the University of Bristol. A study they published in the Lancet aimed to asses the of harm and risks of regulated drug on a clearer scale, measuring three things: the physical harm done to the user

One last dance with Mary-Jane

by taking the drug; how addictive the drug is, or how likely it will be to induce dependency; and the effect that drug use has on families, communities and society at large. The findings were pretty interesting.

They assessed 20 drugs, 5 of which were legal but in danger of abuse, Heroin topped the charts followed by cocaine and barbiturates. That is to be expected, but this is where it gets a bit strange. The experts rated Alcohol 5th and Tobacco 9th, while cannabis came in at 11th, LSD 14th and Ecstasy coming in close to the bottom at 15th. It’s always fun to see experts call government classifications arbitrary and unspecific, but it may not be advisable to bump into a politician and tell him the experts decided the ecstasy you’re rolling on is less harmful than the glass of scotch and cigar in their hands.

5. Daily smokers have higher risk of Major depression and suicidal thoughts.

The Henry Ford Health System did a study of 1,000 people aged 21-30 over a 5 year period. Their findings were

Mmmm depression.

notable both for what is showed was linked, and what was not. The study found that not only were smokers at risk of major depression, but depression may increase the amount of smoking in people who already smoke. Smokers with a history of major depression were found to be three times as likely to become daily smokers. Despite this finding, there was no conclusive data that depression makes you more likely to start smoking, or that depression makes it harder to quit.

The study’s authors say that it’s possible that depressed smokers are self medicating their moods with the effects of nicotine, but that more studies may be needed. I think I’ll go have a cigarette and a nice long cry now.

6. Diabetes before you hit the age of 60 could increase the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s.

A Swedish study published in the journal Diabetes showed that people who contract diabetes before the age of 65 have a 125% increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s. The risk is especially significant for middle age people who develop diabetes, with the risk of Alzheimer’s and other dementias substantially higher than people who develop diabetes after the 65 age mark.

If you were waiting for an upshot, prepare to be disappointed because the study’s authors say that the risk of diabetics developing dementia may be greater than the numbers in the study. The fact that diabetes has an earlier onset than dementia and an increased mortality rate means that the size of the sample available for the study could have been reduced. On top of that, about 30% of older adults with diabetes haven’t been diagnosed yet and would not have been available to the study. So stay healthy, because it would be a horrible set of circumstances where you’re constantly forgetting to check you insulin.

So there you have it, six medical findings that most of us probably wish weren’t the case. Having written this, it makes me wonder what little daily habits I have that will eventually conspire in my downfall. So, whether you’re the pot smoking gamer with poor relationship skills, or the depressed nicotine addict, it may be time to reassess your life and try to be healthier, or you could just go smoke another one.

Healthcare plays an increasingly important role in our lives. Most people across the globe have interacted in some way with some form of healthcare system. Trips to the hospital, navigating insurance, and visits to your local doctor, medicine man, apothecary or what have you. Sometimes it works out pretty well and things sail smoothly; successful operations, helpful brokers, or your local witch-doctor gives you the right poultice for your sprained ankle. Other times, not so much. Accidental amputations due to hospital mix-ups, insurers try to weasel out of paying claims, or your GP misdiagnoses your cancer. We all have bad days. But with the rising cost of health care eating away more and more of your paycheck, and the financial world crashing down, it seems like every day is becoming a struggle, especially for those with serious medical problems. But, regardless of the situation you find yourself, now is the time to take a load off, lighten up and remember; at least you’re not stuck in Medieval Europe or a bad Michael Crichton story.

Medical Theory
While many historians would argue that the ‘Dark Ages’ were nowhere near as ‘dark’ as they may seem, Europe was not a paragon of technological and scientific advancement. While the Middle East enjoyed a Golden Age, Europe had built off an ancient Greek and Roman theory of medicine, called Humorism. The theory was that our bodies were comprised of a balance of four different humors; black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood. The idea being that each humor is linked to: a season of the year, an element (think of the Planeteers’ power minus the chump with Heart), a human organ and temperament, and also possesses its own qualities by being a combination of either warm or cold and moist or dry.
These four humors were created within the body and illness struck when the humors were out of balance. The procession of treatment usually started at checking dietary intake, then moving on to the use of drugs. If all that failed, then in order to right the balance, the doctor would often employ treatments to induce bleeding, vomiting, and evacuating your bowels in a most urgent manner. This is due to the time honored belief that expunging bodily fluids in horrible ways is, in fact, humorous. For others. Especially if your face looked like the ones below.

The four Temperaments and their humors (Clockwise from top right): choleric (yellow bile); melancholic (black bile); sanguine (blood); phlegmatic (phlegm).

So this is what our medical systems and theory was based on, pretty much right up until the 19th century, when we finally decided that medical science based on incorrect concepts of anatomy were just not doing us much good. Not, of course, that we didn’t know any better. In fact, this is in spite of the fact that humorism was disproved on at least three occasions between the 9th century and 13th century by Arabian scholars, who found that both treatments and illnesses (i.e. parasites like scabies) defied the theory. One of these individuals went so far as to discovered pulmonary and coronary circulation out of protest.
So why is this so bad? Surgery for bodily trauma was actually not too shabby, all things considered, as there is evidence people of the time had survived through both head trauma surgeries and operations to remove cataracts. Not half bad for the Middle Ages. However, from poorly informed theory comes poor practice, just look at US foreign policy. The problem with humorism as a disease theory is that you diagnose and treat symptoms according to their supposed humoral properties. Unfortunately, many things that diversely affect human health are not endemic to the human body and therefore can’t be remedied by balancing bodily processes and fluids. Without a doubt, there were medicines at the time that were indeed beneficial for some ailments, more than likely found through trial and error than scholarly study. But without the appropriate framework of medical theory to understand them, you’re never going to be able to understand the effect of parasites, fungi, bacteria and viruses. Your 100% organic, holistic potion may help with that overabundance of black bile, but the deadly nightshade, a hallucinogenic poison, in there may cause side effects ranging from bad dreams to death.

Sub-par diet
Now, while it’s awesome to think that your doctor will automatically look at your diet to see if there’s any quick and easy fix to why you feel under the weather, let’s be honest about the situation we’re supposing here. While village life was probably not as bad as could be imagined, the constant availability of nutritious food was an issue during the times. Most people were agrarians and survived by growing staple cereal crops within the village for both food and trade, but these were also supplemented with other crops grown by individuals for sustenance. In larger villages the inhabitants would rear pigs if they could afford it but were not allowed to hunt animals from forests, as they were reserved for royalty to hunt in. Although, some historians contend that pig rearing was done as much for sale as it was for eating the little porkers. It is quite apparent that there was a large schism between the diets of nobles and clergymen, which had an overabundant level of protein, and peasants who subsisted mostly on cereals.
It’s not all bread and bacon though, as there were some major health problems that stemmed from food intake at the time. Judging from forensic data obtained from skeletons alongside historical documentation of the time, some of the main problems of times were nutritional issues. While there is evidence of multiple famines and starvation, some of the most continual issues were iron deficiency, rickets and scurvy. The lack of readily available trace minerals resulted in numerous long lasting implications for the population, especially for children. Iron deficiency was also a widespread issue for menstruating women and women giving birth as they tended to lose a lot of iron through blood discharge. Considering around 20% of pre-menopausal women today suffer from iron deficiencies, which develop over time, it was probably enormously widespread during the Middle Ages. Odds are, you had one of these three problems, if not more than one, and they all make life pretty miserable. Iron deficiency can make you feel fatigued, weak and irritable, and if you upgrade to anemia you get bonus symptoms ranging from constipation, depression, breathlessness, muscle twitches, tingling and or burning sensations. If that doesn’t make you want to go eat a loaf of fortified bread I don’t know what will.
Rickets is equally as awesome as it usually strikes children, leaving them with reduced bone density. This can lead to general bone tenderness and pain, increased likelihood you’ll break bones, constantly, skeletal deformities of the legs, pelvis and spine and muscle weakness.
What Rickets does to your skeleton, scurvy is to your flesh. But worse, so much worse. The lack of vitamin C causes you to bleed from every mucous membrane you have. Care to venture a guess about what your mucous membranes are? Pretty much any cavity on your body that is exposed to both the external environment and internal organs. So yeah, you’re going to be spending a lot of time bleeding from your nostrils, lips, ears, genitals and anus. On top of that, your gums will go spongy leading to loss of teeth, your healed scars will open up and start bleeding again, any healed bone fractures would separate, and you will lose your nails and enjoy constant diarrhea. Don’t forget to hop back on the vitamin C bandwagon after this wild ride, because failure to do so invariably results in death.
Let’s not forget tuberculosis, which spreads like wildfire through the ranks of the malnourished masses. Interestingly enough, it’s thought that tuberculosis may have been one source of vampirism in folklore. The fact that you get red, swollen eyes that can be sensitive to bright light, pallid skin color, low body heat and coughing blood just screamed ‘blood sucker’ to the people of yore. Tell every vampire infatuated goth you know to go get TB today!
Oh, and before I forget, your plates were going to give you lead poisoning. Any food you didn’t get locally would have also probably been contaminated during transport.

Leprosy
This only recently understood disease still carries with it a certain stigma. We know now that it is nowhere near as contagious as we once thought. In fact, due to genetics, approximately 5 percent of the human population is susceptible to the bacterium that causes it. Unfortunately, due to the fact that we were treating things due to their humors, any illness, infection or parasite that presented itself in a remotely similar way, i.e. you had something on your skin. Pretty much everything from fungal infections and parasites to non-microorganism causes like psoriasis or eczema were classified as ‘leprosy’ as late as the 17th century. Even things that modernity has rendered quite mundane such as ringworm, which isn’t really a worm but the fungus that causes athletes foot, would have been lumped under ‘leprosy’.
Now, granted, you don’t want any of these things even now, as some of them are just plain old untreatable and really, really grotesquely disfiguring in some of the more serious cases. While, unfortunately, being incredibly ugly does still carry some social stigmas, I guarantee you it’s nothing compared to the scorn and hardships poured upon the sorry suckers who suffered these diseases during the Middle Ages. Not only were they looked upon with disgust and often ostracized and forced to live in leper colonies. While the colonies, or hospitals as they were also know, were often run along the same lines that monasteries of the time were, it was mostly to keep them quarantined and away from the general populace. In the 13th century a Benedictine monk estimated there were up to 19,000 leper hospitals across Europe. That’s a lot of people with skin problems.
Apparently, being ugly and an outcast was not enough, and as religion was very strong at the time, lepers were thought to be living through purgatory on earth. Purgatory being a state of purification of the soul for sins not bad enough to get you sent to hell, but bad enough to keep you out of heaven. At first, lepers were seen as a sort of holy half-dead, to steal a turn of phrase from The Chronicles of Riddick (good movie if you enjoy Vin Diesel and ridiculousness, as I do), which meant that they were declared dead by civil leaders, their property would be taken away and their spouse was expected to serve them until death, as per your sacramental wedding vows. They were however, sometimes looked after by the church as they were in a special religious group of their own.
This of course devolved into open hatred of ‘lepers’ as the ‘disease’ grew more prevalent and maybe due in large part to increased rhetoric from the church linking uncleanliness to sin. The obvious link was made between leprosy, uncleanliness and sin, and for eons afterwards the lepers were seen as having this unclean disease bestowed upon them by God for their wicked ways. Oddly enough the same language of uncleanliness and sin was also used in relation to homosexuals, witches and Jews. Of course, if you were rich and had leprosy you were considered a hero and a martyr if you succumbed to the disease. If you were poor? No, God just hated you, and everyone else simply followed suit.

And yes, I left out the Black Death and its outbreaks because we’ve already covered how miserable it was, all you need to know is that it happened a lot. As in, more than 100 epidemics up to the 1700s before it seemed to vanish like a fart in the wind in the 19th century. Rehashing it would just be a cheap shot.

There is an old adage that states ‘you are what you eat’, and it remains as true today as it did hundreds of years ago. In a world where obesity is becoming a serious problem and cholesterol related heart disease is the number one killer in the USA, you don’t have to go too far to find the problem. The food that we eat is, generally, extremely unhealthy. There is a rising trend where individuals are preferring to eat trans-fat laden fast food and other extremely unhealthy produce; leading in a rise to dietary related illnesses. With that in mind here is our list of the 10 healthiest foods in the world.

1. Fish

Throughout the centuries mothers have often told their children to eat fish claiming that it would “make them smart”, and for centuries children have refused to eat the smelly thing on their plate or swallow the spoonful of cod liver oil that was thrust in their direction. According to science however, your mother was right. Not 100% right, but correct enough to know that eating fish is extremely good for you.

Salmon, and other cold-water fish like tuna, mackerel and halibut, are all rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids can decrease blood pressure, lower the risk of stroke, reduce the levels of triglyceride, and reduce the accumulation of plaque in arteries; essentially making it the superhero of the food world. In addition to this, Salmon is also a great source of protein and is low in saturated fat and cholesterol.

So as your mom said, “eat it, its good for you”.

2. Whole Grains

We’re talking about three things when we say ‘whole grains’, and those are bran, germ and endosperm; and if that went way over your head stick with us. Whole grains are the cornerstone to any healthy diet. Rich in vitamins B and E, magnesium, zinc and selenium, these foods are known to help steady blood sugar and insulin levels, and may help reduce the risk of heart disease. Basically whole grains help you regulate your circulatory system and keep you a stable, happy and healthy person.

It is important to note however, that not every food labeled “100% wheat,” “seven-grain,” “organic,” “bran” and “multi-grain” will contain whole grains, and you may have to check the box to ensure that all three grain elements are listed on the ingredients of the food product. Foods like oatmeal, barley, whole wheat flour, and brown rice are all whole grain foods.

3. Nuts

No, not those nuts get your mind out of the gutter; we mean Almonds, Walnuts and Peanuts. Nuts are one of the best sources of protein from plants and are also great for your heart. Even though nuts contain a large amount of fat and calories, they can help weight loss. Some nuts contain helpful amounts of selenium, a powerful antioxidant. Nuts also help the body’s intake of key nutrients and help lower the intake of cholesterol, trans fats, sugars, and excessive sodium. A serving of half an ounce of nuts per day is a heart-friendly snack.

This isn’t a recommendation for you to sit down on the couch and go at it with the peanut butter jar but nuts, like almonds and walnuts, are full of fiber, iron, riboflavin, calcium and magnesium. Almonds are high in calcium and one serving of almonds provides half of your daily allowance of vitamin E. The fat in almonds, a monounsaturated fat, may also help reduce the level of blood cholesterol.

4. Legumes

Beans, lentils, and peas all fall under the Legume classification, essentially these are all the vegetables that, when you were a child, you saw and went ‘eeeewww’. However, the legume family can provide a remarkable amount of energy that can last for hours. A single serving of cooked beans (about one-third of a cup) contains little fat, no cholesterol, only 80 calories, and ample complex carbohydrates.

Apart from the quick energy fix that legumes provide they also contain nutrients like fiber, protein, vitamin B6, folate, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, thiamine, calcium, zinc, manganese, iron and copper; the essential minerals and vitamins that you need to survive. Say what you like about the Legume family, those little beans sure do pack a punch.

5. Spinach

Spinach is probably the only food on this list ever to have a successful marketing campaign. We all remember Popeye from our youth, and who could ever forget the image of that jolly sailor popping open a can of spinach and guzzling it down. In reality spinach is one of the single healthiest foods you can include in your diet. Spinach is rich in fiber, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals. As spinach has nearly zero calories, you can eat as much of it as you like. Spinach is high in vitamins A, C, E, and B6, iron, folate, riboflavin, magnesium, and calcium. Spinach has nearly half of the recommended daily allowance of vitamin C.

The plant compounds found in spinach can help the immune system as well. These compounds are also thought to keep skin and hair healthy as well. A Harvard Medical School study showed that eating spinach may also help your memory as you age. So while this extremely green and leafy vegetable may not appeal to many people, you should definitely start eating the Popeye diet.

6. Apples

The humble apple is often forgotten on many lists in favour of alternate citrus fruits. However, the old saying, “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” is not far from the truth. Apples are rich in fiber and vitamin C. Vitamin C is an antioxidant that protects the body’s cells from damage. Vitamin C also helps keep capillaries and blood vessels healthy by forming the connective tissue collagen. Iron and folate are absorbed more quickly into the blood when vitamin C is present. One apple provides 25% of your daily requirement of vitamin C. Apples also contain other antioxidants, like flavonoids and other polyphenols.

Apples are also high in pectin, which is a type of fiber that lowers glucose and blood cholesterol levels. Pectin is most concentrated in the apple peel, or skin. Apples may help those with blood sugar issues like diabetes, and may also help maintain weight control. Apples are a type of carbohydrate that has a low glycaemic index, or GI. Foods with a low GI are digested slowly. As the food is digested, it is released into the bloodstream as glucose. This causes a gradual rise in the level of blood sugar. Apples are not just a tasty snack but also provide a range of health benefits.

7. Broccoli

Broccoli has the ability to strike fear into the hearts of grown mean at the mere mention of its name, never mind its appearance on the dinner plate. However, this crucifer-cousin spinach, has long been heralded for its health benefits as it contains nutrients like vitamins A, B, C, and K, fiber, calcium, potassium, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, and phosphorus. Broccoli is also a great source of a range of healthful antioxidants.

Broccoli also contains phytonutrients that help prevent heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers. Phytonutrients, or phytochemicals, are plant compounds that are thought to slow or even stop the growth of tumors. These phytonutrients also provide a boost to the immune system. So even if you tremble at the thought of this oddly shaped vegetable, give it a chance and you may just live longer.

8. Berries

Berries including pomegranates, blueberries, strawberries, and cranberries are considered
to be highly nutritious. These fruits offer a number of health benefits ranging from
reducing the risk of cancer to inhibiting diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
Berries contain vitamins B, C, K, and E, fiber, folic acid, and numerous other
antioxidants.

Blueberries are also among the healthiest of the berry family. They are a low calorie source of vitamin C and fiber. Eating blueberries is thought to help those suffering from diabetes, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and heart disease. Blueberries are another excellent source of phytonutrients. Research has shown that eating blueberries fights cancer better than most other fruits. Blueberries are also beneficial to the elderly as they promote memory and slow the aging process. Berries really are a tasty way to improve one’s health.

9. Citrus

Citrus include such fruits as oranges, limes, lemons, and grapefruits. Citrus is the best known source for vitamin C. A single orange has an entire day’s worth of vitamin C. Oranges have been epitomized as the ‘complete package of natural anti-cancer nutrients’. Rich in antioxidants, citrus contains a variety of nutrients known to reduce the risk of cancer as well as heart and eye disease.

10. Tomatoes

Tomatoes are high in vitamins A and C, and the strong antioxidant lycopene. Tomatoes are thought to benefit the heart and lower the risk of cancer. Grape tomatoes in particular are high in vitamins A and C, fiber, and some phytochemicals, which are known to reduce the risk of cancer. Tomatoes contain 40% of the recommended daily allowance of vitamin C, and 15% of vitamin A.

The red pigment in the flesh of tomatoes comes from lycopene. Tomatoes provide the single richest source of lycopene. This type of antioxidant can repair damage to DNA that causes wrinkled skin. Recent research also suggests lycopene may lower the risk of prostate, pancreatic, breast, and cervical cancer. Lycopene may also maintain mental and physical functions in older people. An Italian study found that 7 servings of raw tomatoes lower the risk of stomach and rectal colon cancers by 60%. Tomatoes really are an easy way to improve your health.

There you have it, the 10 healthiest foods in the world. It’s not surprising that fruits and vegetables make up a goodly proportion of this list, but it just so happens that they are the healthiest foods available.

One of the most surprising things about the USA is the fact that there is a huge disparity in the average life expectancy from state to state. As a country the USA has an average life expectancy of 78.2 years from birth. This ranks the US as the country with the 38^th highest life expectancy in the world, falling just behind Cuba (78.3) and just above Portugal (78.1). This does not mean, however, that every one in the USA will live to an age of 78.2 years, and depending on the state that you live in, you may be living for a much shorter time.

The 10 US states with the lowest life expectancy are:

Even though it is not a state Washington DC tops the list with and average life expectancy of 72.6 years fewer than the federal average.

Life expectancy in the USA cannot be solely attributed to income disparity or social gaps, but rather the prevalence of chronic diseases in middle-aged and young adults. Factors such as drug use, infant mortality, income disparity, and violence, which were previously thought to be much more important, have come to play less of a role in determining life expectancies.

Researchers have classified 8 social or ethnic groups in the USA in terms of their life expectancy, and found that Asian Americans are expected to live 6.8 years longer than the national average, or until 85 years of age. This is a 32% longer life span than is associated with Native Americans living in South Dakota, and may say something about the lifestyle choices of the Asian population that lead them to avoid suffering from serious chronic conditions.

The second group with the highest average life expectancies in the USA is made up of an estimated 3.6 million, low income Caucasians, living in the Dakotas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, and Montana; proving that it is not always a large income that creates a long life. This group, which researchers have dubbed “America 2” are, on average, expected to live for 79 years, still well above the federal average.

Groups 7 and 8, comprising low income rural Southern Blacks and high-risk urban Blacks respectively, are only expected to live until the age of 71. This may be due to a number of factors including the prevalence of unhealthy lifestyles, high HIV/Aids rates, and violence. However, researchers point out that there is still no definitive criteria for determining exactly what will contribute to a longer lifespan, and that their understanding of this topic is still growing.

What they are sure of is, that much of the variation between different states and different ‘groups’ comes down to diet, exercise, and smoking, rather than healthcare, meaning that in order to live longer, you should take care of your self.

In today’s world everyone is trying to lead healthier lifestyles and live longer, but many people aren’t really sure where to start. With that in mind here are 8 easy ways for you to live longer.

1. Don’t oversleep, but make sure you rest up.

This may seem rather confusing, but bear with us. Scientists have found that people who sleep for more that 8 hours a night have a significantly lower life expectancy than the rest of the population, according to a study published in the Archives of General Psychiatry. This does not mean, however, that you are allowed to stay up all night drinking! Scientists also discovered that individuals who got 4 hours or less sleep a night also had reduced life expectancies. The optimal amount of sleep for a normal, healthy adult is between 6 -7 hours a night, and if you can do that consistently then you may live to be a grand old age.

2. Have Sex, and if you’re already doing it, have more.

We all like sex, it is hard wired into our genes, but according to the Journal of the American Medical Association, sex may be more than just a pleasurable reproductive activity. In men, it has been found, that higher rates of ejaculation lead to a lower risk of prostate cancer; and in addition to this, ejaculating causes the body to relax meaning that at the end of the day you will be more rested. Let’s not forget the obvious though, sex makes people happy, and in conjunction with the removal of stress and relaxation factors, this can help lower the risk of a stroke or heart disease, and keep your blood pressure down, leaving you a healthy and balanced person.

3. Get A Vertical Auto Profile Test

Get a what? Yes, that was our initial reaction as well, however a Vertical Auto Profile, or VAP, Test is the most accurate cholesterol test being used in medicine today. It is estimated that approximately 50% of people with heart disease where found to have normal cholesterol levels when using conventional testing methods. Remember that heart disease is the number one cause of death in the USA, and that it is usually caused by high cholesterol, and that 50% becomes pretty scary. What it boils down to is the fact that a VAP has been proven to detect 90% of the people with heart disease that undergo the exam. A VAP is a simple blood test and can let you know, almost immediately, if you need to change your lifestyle. Get a VAP and know whether you’re at risk.

4. Money; get it.

Everyone wants to get rich, but if you want to live longer then having money may actually serve a higher purpose. It’s all about income disparity! A study preformed by the American National Center for Health Statistics essentially tells us that poorer people are more likely to suffer from severe chronic illnesses than their wealthier compatriots. 24% of American who earn under US$ 20,000 a year suffer from a chronic condition, as opposed to the 6% who earn US$ 75,000. There may be a myriad of reasons for this, and researchers often site the fact that richer people can afford better healthcare, however there is no doubt that those in the upper income brackets live much longer than those at the bottom.

5. Stop Smoking

In this day and age it hardly constitutes a revelation when someone tells you that smoking is bad for your health. Emphysema, lung cancer, mouth cancer, constricted blood vessels, rapid aging of the skin, aggressive prostate cancer in men, and impotence (see point 2) won’t do anything for your prospects of a long life. Generally, smokers have a 50% chance of dying younger than non smokers; enough said.

6. Chill Out

Stress can cause the development of heart diseases and lead to severe strokes and as a study by Johns Hopkins University found, individuals with high stress levels where 6 times more likely to have a heart attack before they were 55. Basically what this means is that it is good to kick back and smell the roses every once in a while and let the stress/anger/extreme rage melt away. Go to a masseuse, lay off the caffeine, step out of the board room, and take the time to truly enjoy life. Not only will you live longer, but you will have enjoyed and experienced more at the same time.

7. Relocate…. To Japan.

That may seem like a fairly odd way for you to extend your life, but at 82.6 years, Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world; well above the global average of 67.2. But what is the crucial factor that helps the Japanese live longer? A better diet and lots of green tea, Japan tends to eat more fresh produce than the USA or UK, and Japanese nationals tend to shop at markets everyday; relying less on preservative packed and sugar coated foods than the west has helped Japan crush the competition when it comes to living longer. Maybe this point could have been “eat better food”, but we think that moving to Japan would be a lot cooler.

8. Exercise

This one is a no-brainer, exercising releases endorphins, endorphins make you happy, being happy helps you relax, relaxing helps you live longer; ergo exercise makes you live longer. In addition to the release of endorphins exercise also helps to create muscle, strengthen bones, strengthen your heart, and build up the immune system. People who exercise will always live longer than those who don’t, it’s that simple.

So there you go, these are our tips for living longer, no go out and do it!

Health care in the USA is a subject that, over the years, has inspired numerous debates, ideas, and controversies in regards to the correct method with which to better protect the health and safety of American citizens. Since the start of the 2008 election campaigns, the issue of health care in the USA has become a pivotal point that has the potential to make or break the progress of various candidates’ journeys towards the white house. Since the release of filmmaker Michael Moore’s movie SiCKO, the American public has become even more aware of the options, or lack thereof, provided by the health care system, leaving many taxpayers and voters calling for a solution.

The controversies are all based on the fact that, although the US can lay claim to having one of the best medical service industry in the world, they also have the highest costs associated with medical treatment and care. With critical operations such as heart bypass surgeries costing as much as US$130,000, many Americans are finding themselves unable to bear this heavy financial burden. This is contributing to the fact that medical treatment has become the number one reason for declaring personal bankruptcy in the USA. In no uncertain terms, the choice that many Americans are facing is to receive necessary treatment and suffer extreme financial consequences, or not receive treatment and suffer severe illness and possibly death.

In conjunction with the already high costs of treatment experienced throughout the United States comes the issue of rapid medical inflation across all sectors of the health care industry. Intensive government regulation, inflated drug costs, and rising equipment expenses are all leading to rapid prices hikes and having hard hitting impacts on the American public.

As mentioned above, since the start of the Republican and Democratic debates, candidates on both sides of the political divide have been asked what they would do to address the causes of skyrocketing health care costs. As you would expect from such a diverse field of candidates, there have been a number of solutions.

1. Unilateral Universal Health Care (similar to Britain’s NHS)

1. • Universal health care is a position that has taken hold primarily in the Democratic camp. The main sponsors of this solution to America’s health care crisis are Clinton, Edwards, Gravel, Kucinich, Obama and Richardson.

Universal health care is the idea that every one should have equal access to quality health care services. While in theory this idea seems to work, many nations that have universal health care coverage (the UK, for example), have seen that, in reality, it can take a patient an extremely long time to receive the care that they need. In addition, facilities are limited and doctors and health care professionals are overburdened by their patient load. This all leads to the rejection of such a reform in the USA.

Critics cite that any such universal health care system would have to be regulated extensively by the government, leading to slowdowns in the patient treatment process. They also stress that America currently has one of the most highly-regulated health care industries in the world and that the regulation of the health care industry provides benefits to health care providers of up to US$170 billion. In actuality, this costs taxpayers approximately US$340 billion. However, there are a number of benefits to universal health care. One of the major profits is fact that, no matter what happens, an individual will always be assured of the help and care that they need.

The second major option that is being suggested by candidates is:

2. Mandatory purchase of health insurance

1. • Mandatory health insurance was initially proposed and instituted in Massachusetts by Republican candidate Governor Mitt Romney. It has since gained credence with a number of state legislatures including that of California.

Mandatory health insurance requires that every citizen in the USA would have to purchase a health insurance plan to guarantee themselves health care. The big issue that proponents of mandatory health insurance have faced is the fact that this proposal is not very different from the legislation currently in place in the form of HMOs Medicare and Medicaid. The only real variation is that Americans would not have the choice to opt out of coverage. Opponents have responded to the plan by asking whether the coverage would be the same as the low protection offered by current programs, and have cited the fact that individuals could purchase a plan with virtually no protection to remain inside the law. One favorable aspect of mandatory health insurance is the fact that there would be no tax increases, while there would be with a universal health care scheme.

The last major suggestion on the table is:

3. Insurance Tax Credit

1. • Originally offered as a viable option to the health care issue by Republican candidate Dr. Ron Paul, this option has gained support from fellow candidates Rudy Giuliani, and John McCain.

Insurance for tax credit is remarkably similar to the mandatory health insurance suggestion but with a few significant changes. With this option, no one would be forced to purchase health insurance, however, the individuals that do will be given a tax credit (or rebate) for the costs of their health insurance premiums. Dr. Paul states that many families are currently spending close to US$1000 in annual insurance premiums, without being rewarded for not being independent of government support or the health care industry. This option means limited government involvement in an individual’s health care choices, and that people will only gain credit for what they pay. In Dr. Paul’s plan there are no forced insurance policies, benefits are given to families with children and those with terminally ill dependents, and social security fees are waived for individuals suffering from a terminal or oncological illness.

When all of the above are compared, in terms of realistic, short-term legislation, the insurance for tax credit option seems like the most viable option. By leaving choices in the hands of the individual citizen and the open market, consumers are able to make informed decisions about the type of coverage that they want. By giving individuals that have purchased health insurance a rebate at tax time, the government recognizes that protection is, indeed, necessary.

Programs like Medicare and Medicaid are responsible for roughly two thirds of all public health spending, and the United States currently has the highest per-capita health care expenditure in the world. Looking at that, it is clear that universal coverage is not an option that will correct the inflation inherent in the health care industry, but rather create higher taxes and close up the market.

These are just some of the major options that have been suggested in recent months during the campaigns. Ultimately, it is up to the American voters to decide which position they desire. However, there are solutions that have more credibility than others, and throwing money at the problem will not make it go away. Take some time and research the positions, it may have more effect on you than you know.